ENGLISH BIBLE: ARCHAISMS
A. R. to the American revision only; E. R. to the English
version only; m. is for margin.
Abjects. Ps 35:15 R. V. m. smiters.
Affect. Gal 4:17 court.
Allow. Lu 11:48 approve.
All to. Judg 9:53 entirely (read brake). R. V. omits.
Amaze. Mk 10:32 14:33 bewildered (in a maze'); amazement, Ac 3:10
joy, 1 Pet 3:6 R. V. m. terror.
Artillery. I Sa 20:10 R. V. weapons.
Astonied. Job 17:8 Is 52:14, &c. A. R. astonished, Dn 5:9 R. perplexed.
In Eze 3:15 astonished is altered in R. to astonied.
Audience. 1 Sa 25:24 Lu 7:1 R. V. ears, Lu 20:45 R. V. hearing; to give
audience, Ac 13:16 15:12 R. to hearken.
Away with. Is 1:13 put up with.
Barbarian. I Cor 14:11 foreigner (comp. Ac 28:2).
Bestead. Is 8:21 circumstanced, situated.
Bestow. Lu 12:17.18 put away (not give away).
Bolled. Ex 9:31 podded for seed, or as R. m. 'in bloom.'
Bravery. Is 13:18 A. R. beauty (comp. Scotch 'braw').
Brigandines. Jer 46:4 R. coats of mail.
By and by. Mt 13:21 Lu 21:9 R. V. straightway (immediately).
Carriage. Judg 18:21 R. V. goods (pl.), 1 Sa 17:22 Is 10:28 Ac 21:15 R. V.
baggage, Is 46:1 R. things that ye carried about.
Charger(s). Num 7:13, &c. A. R. platter, Mt 14:11 Mk 6:25 (unaltered).
Charity. I Cor 13 R. V. love.
Coast(s). Ex 10:4 Dt 2:14.18 Mt 2:16 Ac 13:50, &c. R. V. borders, regions,
uttermost parts, &c. (not implying sea).
Comfort, n. and v. (besides consolation). I Cor 14:3 R. V. exhortation,
I Th 5:14 R. V. encourage.
Convenient. Ro 1:28 Eph 5:4 R. V. fitting, befitting, 1 Cor 16:12 convenient
time, R. opportunity.
Conversation. Phil 3:20 2 Pet 2:7 (manner of life).
Convince. Tit 1:9 Ju :15 Jn 8:46 Jas 2:9 R. convict, Ac 18:28 R. confute.
Cunning. Ex 31:4 1 Ki 17:14, &c. A. R. skilful.
Curious. Ex 28:8 35:32 Ac 19:19. E. R. cunning, A. R. skilful.
Damn, -ation. Mt 23:14 Ro 3:8, &c. R. V. condemnation, Jo 5:29 Ro 13:2
R. V. judgement; damnable heresies, 2 Pet 2:1 heresies of destruction, i.e.
leading to destruction.
Daysman. Job 9:33 arbitrator, R. m. umpire.
Deal. Ex 29:40 R. V. part (or portion).
Dispensation. 1 Cor 9:17 R. V. stewardship.
Draught, -house. Mt 15:17 2 Ki 10:27 drain, sewer.
Ear, -ed, -ing. Dt 21:4 Gen 45:6 Ex 34:21 R. V. plow (Lat. arare).

THE BIBLE AS TRANSLATED
Emerods. 1 Sa 5:6 R. tumours (hæmorrhoids).
Enlarge. Ps 4:1 R. V. set at large, 2 Cor 10:15 R. V. magnify.
Ensue. I Pet 3:11 R. pursue.
Entreated. Ac 27:3 E. R. treat, Gen 12:16 A. R. dealt well, Ex 5:22 Dt 26:6
(evil entreated), A. R. deait ill with.
Fats, n. Joel 2:24 A. R. vats.
Eschew, -ed. 1 Pet 3:11 R. turn away from, Job 1:1 (unaltered: avoided).
Fetched a compass. Jos 15:3 2 Ki 3:9 Ac 28:13 R. V. made a circuit.
Fray, v. Dt 28:26 scare, frighten.
Goodman of the house. Mt 20:11 R. V. householder, Mt 24:43 Lu 12:39
R. master of the house.
Hale, v. Lu 12:58 Ac 8:3 drag away.
Harness. 1 Ki 22:34 2 Ch 9:24 R. V. armour; harnessed, Ex 13:18 R.
armed.
Heir. Mic 1:15 Jer 49:2 R. V. possessor
His for its, R. V. (In Old English the masc. and neut. forms were
the same.)
Honest, -ly. Ac 6:3 R. V. good, Ro 12:17 2 Cor 8:21, &c. R. V. honourable,
honesty, I Tim 2:2 R. V. gravity.
I Pet 2:12 E. R. seemly, 1 Th 4:12 A. R. becomingly, Heb 13:18 A. R. honourably;
Instant, -ly. Lu 23:23 A. R. urgent, Ro 12:12 R. V. stedfastly, Lu 7:4 Ac 26:7
R. V. carnestly.
Jot or tittle. Mt 5:18 (the smallest letter or part of a letter).
Knop. Ex 25:31.33 sqq. 'knob.'
Leasing. Ps 4:2 5:6 R. V. falsehood, lies.
Let (as well as ordinary meaning). Is 43:13 E. R. m. reverse, A. R.
hinder, a Th 2:7 R. V. restrain. 'There are two Anglo-Saxon verbs
somewhat alike in spelling, but directly opposite in meaning, latan to
permit, and lettan to hinder.'-HASTINGS. Hence the apparent con-
fusion.
Lewd, -ness. Ac 17:5 18:14 R. V. vile, villany.
Libertines. Ac 6:9 freed slaves, or the children of such.
Marish. Eze 47:11 'marsh,' an old form of the word.
Mortify. Ro 8:13 Col 3:5 A. R. put to death.
Minish, -ed. Ex 5:19 Ps 107:39 and E. R. Is 19:6 Ho 8:10 A. R. diminish, -ed.
Motions. Ro 7:5 R. V. passions.
Mystery. Often a revealed secret, as Eph 1:9-10; sometimes a doctrine.
Mysteries doctrines, 1 Cor 4:1.
Neese. 2 Ki 4:35 sneeze'; neesings, Job 41:18 A. R. sneezings.
Nephews. Judg 12:14 Job 18:19 Is 14:22 1 Tim 5:4 R. V. sons' sons, grand-
children.
So occupation, as Ac 18¹,
Occupy. Eze 27:9-19 E. R. exchange, A. R. deal in, Lu 19:13 R. V. trade.
Or ever. Ps 90:2 Pr 8:23 Dn 6:21 even before,

ENGLISH BIBLE: ARCHAISMS
Offend. Mt 5:29.30 Jn 6:61 2 Cor 11:29, &c. R. V. cause to stumble or to
sin; offence, Mt 16:23 1 Cor 10:32 stumbling-block.
Ouches. Ex 28:11 39:6, &c. A. R. settings (properly 'nouches,' Chaucer).
Painful, -ness. Ps 73:16 2 Cor 11:27 R. V. travail.
Peculiar. Tit 2:14 1 Pet 2:9 R. V. for (God's) possession, Dt 7:6 14:2 26:18
E. R. peculiar unto Himself, A. R. for His own possession, Dt 7:6 E. R. for A. V.
special.
Peep. Is 8:19 10:14 R. V. chirp (rather 'cheep,' the faint cry of
a nestling.-HASTINGS).
Poll, v. 2 Sa 14:26 Eze 44:20 Mic 1:16 A. R. cut (the hair).
Prevent. Ps 119:147 A. R. anticipate, Mt 17:25 R. V. spake first to, 1 Th 4:15
R. V. precede.
Provoke. 2 Cor 9:2 R. V. stirred up, Heb 10:24 Ro 11:14 stimulate: else-
where in a bad sense.
Purge. Mt 3:12 Jn 15:2 Heb 9:14 R. V. cleanse (in any way).
Quick, quicken. Num 16:30 Ps 124:3 Heb 4:12 R. V. living, make alive.
Quit. I Sa 4:9 1 Cor 16:13 'acquit.'
Reins. Ps 7:9 Is 11:5, &c. Lit. 'kidneys': met. for emotions, affections.
Religion, religious. Ac 13:43 R. V. devout: used chiefly of outward
manifestation of piety Ac 26:5 Gal 1:13.14 Jas 1:26.27.
Road. I Sa 27:10 R. V. raid.
Room. Ps 31:8 Lu 14:9.10 R. V. place.
Scrabble. I Sa 21:13 'scrawl' (not connected with scribble.'-
HASTINGS).
Scrip. I Sa 17:40 Lu 22:36 R. V. (in New Testament) wallet (a small
bag for provisions, &c.).
Several. 2 Ki 15:5 Ch 26:21 A. R. separate (R. m. 'n lazar house').
Sherd. Is 30:14 shred' or fragment (comp. potsherd').
Shroud. Eze 31:3 covering, shelter.
Sith. Eze 35:6 A. R. since.
Skill, v. 1 Ki 5:6 2 Ch 2:7.8 A. R. to know how.
Sometimes. Eph 2:13 R. V. once; sometime, I Pet 3:20 R. V. aforetime.
Steads. I Ch 5:22 (R. V. 'stead'), places of abode.
Straw, v. Mt 21:8 'strew,' R. V. spread, Mt 25:24.26 R. V. scatter.
Stuff. Sa 10:22 25:13 30:24 A. R. baggage, Lu 17:31 R. goods.
Tabering. Nah 2:7 A. R. beating, as on a tabor.
Take thought, to. I Sa 9:5 A. R. be anxious, Mt 6:28 Lu 12:26 R. V. be
anxious, Lu 24:38 thoughts, E. R. reasonings, A. R. questionings.
Target. I Sa 17:6 a light shield or buckler (R. V. reads javelin, from
a different text).
Trow. Lu 17:9 suppose.
Usury. Mt 25:27 Lu 19:23 R. V. interest (in a general sense; not extor-
tionate interest); usurer, Ex 22:25 R. V. creditor.
Virtue. Mk 5:30 Lu 6:19 8:46 R. V. power. Elsewhere, excellency.

THE BIBLE AS TRANSLATED
Ware. Ac 14:6 R. V. aware.
Wealth. I Cor 10:24 welfare.
Wit, v. Gen 24:21 Ex 2:4 at R. V. know; do you to wit, 2 Cor 8:1 R. make
known to you; wist, Ex 16:15 Jos 2:4 A. R. knew; wot, Gen 21:26 39:8 Ex 32:1.
A. R. know; Rom 11:2 A. R. know.

APPENDIX II
NATURAL HISTORY
I. Animals of Scripture
I. QUADRUPEDS
Ape. Heb. Qoph (or monkey); from S. India or Ceylon, 1 Ki 10:22
2 Ch 9:21.
Ass. Heb. Chămor (reddish), Gen 12:16 45:23. Athôn (she-ass), Num
22:21-33, Ayir (colt), Is 30:6.24, Pérĕ (wild ass), Ps 104:11.
Badger. Heb. Tachash. Certainly not the badger: probably the
porpoise or seal. R. V. reads for 'badgers' skins' (outer covering
of the ark) 'sealskins' (marg. or porpoise-skins), Ex 25:5, &c.
Bat. Heb. 'Atalleph, Dt 14:18 Is 2:20.
Bear. Heb. Dobh. The Syrian bear of naturalists, 2 Sa 17:8 Pr 28:15.
Behemoth. Plural of Heb. word for beast or cattle; the hippopotamus
(denoting bigness), Job 40:15-24.
Boar. Heb. Chazir, the wild boar, devastator of vineyards, Ps 80:13.
Bull. Several words for the male of the herd. Heb. Abbir (mighty),
Ps 68:30; Bāqār, Ex 29:1, &c. 'Eghel (bull-calf), Jer 31:18 Par
(bullock), passim. Shōr, generic, an animal of the ox species, very
frequent.
Camel. Heb. Gāmāl, passim.
Cattle. Heb. Běhēmah (see Behemoth), also rendered beast, a collective
word, passim; Baqar, Eccl 2:7 Joel 1:18. But a frequent word is
Miqnêh, literally possession or substance, cattle in the East
being the most valuable property, Gen 4:20, &c.
Chamois. Heb. Zémer, Dt 14:5. Probably a species of wild sheep,
'leaper.'
Coney. Heb. Shāphān, 'the hider.' Hyrax Syriacus, a small quadruped
of the rabbit kind; dweller in rocky cavities, Dt 14:7 Ps 104:18
Pr 30:26.
Deer, Fallow. Properly the roebuck, Dt 14:5 1 Ki 4:23 (R. V.). Heb.
Yachmûr.
Dog. Heb. Kélebh. Not domesticated as in Europe, but unclean,
wild and fierce in towns and villages of the East, the terror of the
streets. Occasionally set to guard the flock, Job 30:1, but in that
character regarded as vile and loathsome.
Dromedary. Three Hebrew words are so rendered: Béker, Is 60:6
Jer 2:23 (R. V. 'young camel'); Rékesh, I Ki 4:28 (R. V. 'swift
steed'); Rammak, Est 8:10 (lit. offspring of mares').

I. ANIMALS OF SCRIPTURE
Ferret. A lizard, probably the gecko (R. V.), Lev 11:50. Heb.
'Anāqāh, 'groaner.'
Fox. Or jackal (R. V. marg.), Ps 63:10.11 Ct 2:15, &c. Heb. Shû'al.
Goat. Heb. Ez, the usual word, Gen 15:9, &c. Attúdh, 'he-goat,' Ps 66:15
Is 34:6. Sa'ir (hairy), Lev 16 throughout, 2 Ch 29:23 Eze 43:25. Wild
goat, Ya'el, 1 Sa 24:2, perhaps the ibex. 'Aggô, Dt 14:5.
Lev 110. Heb.
Greyhound. Some render the Heb. Zarzîr (loin-girt) or war-horse
(R. V. marg.).
Hare. Heb. 'Arnébheth, Lev 11:6 Dt 14:7. It does not really 'chew the
cud,' but has a habit of moving the jaw as if doing so. 'For
popular guidance this description was better than a more scientific
one.' Dr. P. SCHAFF.
Hart. Heb. 'Ayyāl, Ps 42:1, &c. Young hart, fawn. 'Opher, Ct 2:9.17 8:14.
Horse. Heb. Sûs, passim. Sûsah, fem. mare, or perhaps collective,
a team of horses, Ct 1:9.
Hyena. Not in English version but according to Gesenius the right
rendering of tsābhûa', 'speckled bird,' Jer 12:9. Zeboim, 1 Sa 13:18,
'the valley of hyenas.'
Leopard. Heb. Nāmēr, 'spotted,' Is 11:6 Jer 13:23.
Lion. The number and variety of names expressively show the
attention aroused in a pastoral community by this terror of their
flocks and herds. Heb. Laïsh, Shāchāl, 'Ari (tearer), Kěphir (young
lion), Lābhi (lion or lioness). All these words occur in Job 4:10.11.
Mole. Heb. Chăpharpērah, 'digger of holes,' Is 2:20. (Gesen, rat) prob.
of burrowing and gnawing animals generally. Tinshėmeth, Lev 11:30,
the chameleon.
Mouse. Heb. 'Akbār, 'burrower,' esp. field-mouse, Lev 11:29, &c.
Mule. Heb. Péred, Pirdah, generally. In Est 8:10 Rékhesh, 'swift steed,'
as I Ki 4:28 (A. V. 'dromedary') Mic 1:13. In Gen 36:24 the word is
different, and probably means 'hot springs' (so R. V.).
Pygarg. A Greek word (LXX), 'white-haunched,' some species of
antelope, Dt 14:5. Heb. Dîshôn.
Roebuck. Roe, the gazelle. Heb. Tsĕbhi, f. Tsĕbhiyyah, in general,
Pr 5:19. Yaălah, 'doe' (R. V.) or chamois.
Satyrs. Heb. Sĕîrîm, hairy ones,' Is 13:21, perhaps he-goats; or
generally for wild denizens of the wilderness. Twice rendered
'devils,' Lev 17:7 2 Ch 11:15 (he-goats' R. V.) as objects of worship.
Sheep. Several words so rendered, as natural among a pastoral
people. Heb. Seh, 'one of a flock.' Tsōn, 'flock.' Kebhes (fem.
Kibhsah) or Kesebh, 'he-lamb.' Rākhēl,'ewe.' 'Ayil, 'ram.' Gr.
πρόβατον, sheep. ἀμνός or ἄρνιον, ‘lamb.’ ποίμνη, ‘flock,
Swine. Heb. Châzîr, Gr. χι̑ορος, Lev 11:7, &c.
Unicorn. Heb. Rĕēm. Properly buffalo or (as R. V.) wild ox, Num
23:22, &c.
Weasel. Heb. Chōled, 'glider,' Lev 11:29.
Whale. Heb. Tannîn, any sea-monster. So R. V. Gen 1:21 Job 7:12.
In Eze 32:2 'dragon.'
Wolf. Heb. Zĕēbh, 'tawny'; Gr. λύκος. The terror of flocks in Pales-
tine; a frequent emblem of cruelty and greed.

2. BIRDS.
Bittern. Heb. Qippōd; but more probably porcupine, as R. V., Is 14:23
34:11 Zep 2:14.
Cormorant. Rather pelican, Is 34:11 Zep 2:14. Heb. Qa᾽ath. In Lev 11:17
Dt 14:17 the cormorant is intended. See R. V. Heb. Shālākh,
'diver.'
Crane. In two passages 'crane' and 'swallow' should be transposed
(as R. V.), Is 38:14 Jer 8:7. Heb. Sûs and 'Anûr.
Cuckoo. Rather sea-mew (R. V.), Lev 11:16 Dt 14:15. Heb. Shachaph,
'slender.'
Dove. Heb. Yônah. Gr. περιστερά. Frequent in Old Testament. In
New Testament Mt 3:16 and parallels; Mt 10:16 21:12, &c. See
Turtledove.
Eagle. Heb. Nésher. Gr. ἀετός, Dt 19:4 Is 40:31, &c., Rev 4:7 12:14 and var.
read. 8:15; for angel see R. V. The gier-eagle, Lev 11:18 Dt 14:17,
Heb. Racham, is a species of vulture; and in Mt 24:28 Lu 17:37 the
preferable translation seems to be 'vultures,' as R. V. marg.
Hawk. Heb. Nēts (swift-flier), Lev 11:16 Dt 14:15 Job 39:26. Night-hawk,
Tachmas, Lev 11:16 Dt 14:15. See Swan.
Heron. Heb. ῾Anaphah, Lev 11:1 Dt 14:15. Possibly the ibis.
Kite. Heb. Ayyah, Lev 11:14 Dt 14:13.
Lapwing. Heb. Dûkhîphath, Lev 11:19 Dt 14:18. Probably the hoopoe
(R. V.).
Osprey. Heb. ῾Ozniyyah, a species of eagle, Lev 11:13 Dt 14:12, a fish-
feeding bird.
Ossifrage. 'Bone-breaker,' Heb. Péres, Lev 11:13 Dt 14:12. The gier-
eagle.
Ostrich. See Owl. In addition to the passages there cited, Lam 4:3
has the Heb. Yĕ῾ēnîm, pl. for ostriches, and Job 39:13-18 gives a vivid
description of the ostrich's habits. The word rendered in A. V.
'peacocks' (Heb. Rěnānîm) should undoubtedly be ostriches, and
'ostrich' at the end of the verse is a mistake. See R. V.
Owl. Heb. Yanshûph (twilight bird). 'Great owl,' Lev 11:17 Dt 14:1
Is 34:11. 'Little owl,' Kôs, Ps 102:6 Lev 11:17 Dt 14:16. But as this
word means cup, it possibly here denotes pelican, from its pouch.
Lilith, 'screech-owl, Is 34:14, properly night-monster (so R. V.).
Ya῾ănah (crier), always preceded by Bath-, 'daughter of,' means
the ostrich, Lev 11:16 Dt 14:15 Job 30:29 Is 13:21 34:13 43:20 Jer 50:39 Mic 1:8.
See R. V.
Partridge. Heb. Qorē (caller), I Sa 26:20 Jer 17:11.
Peacock. Not a native of Palestine. See Ostrich. Peacocks were
imported by Solomon, 1 Ki 10:22. Heb. pl. Tûkiyyim.
Pelican. See Cormorant.
Quail. Ex 16:18 Num 11:31.32 Ps 105:40. Mentioned only in the narrative
of the Exodus. Heb. Sĕlav.
Raven. Heb. ῾Orēbh (croaker), also Crow, Gen 8:7 Ps 147:9 Pr 30:17, &c.
Sparrow. Heb. Tsippôr (chirper). Any small bird, especially the
sparrow, Ps 84:3. Also translated bird (fowl), as Lev 14:4-7 Ps 8:8.
Stork. Heb. Chăsidah (the pious, from the affectionate care of her
offspring), Ps 104:17 Zee 5:9. On Job 39:13 see Ostrich, and R. V.
('kindly' or 'stork-like').
1. ANIMALS OF SCRIPTURE
Swallow. Heb. Dĕrōr (free or swift-flying), Ps 84:3 Pr 26:2. See Crane.
Swan. Heb. Tanshémeth, Lev 11:18 Dt 14:10 (A. V.). But R. V. has
'horned owl.' Other interpreters propose Lizard or Pelican.
Turtledove. Heb. Tôr, from the bird's note, Gen 15:2 Lev 57:7.11
Ps 74:19 Ct 2:12. New Testament τρυγών, Lu 2:24.
Vulture. In Job 28:7 for vulture, Heb. Ayyah, read falcon (R. V.), else-
where kite. So for Dayyah (Da᾽ah), darter, Lev 11:14 Dt 14:13 Is 34:15.
See Eagle.
3. REPTILES
Adder. Heb. ῾Akhshûbh, Ps 140:3. Péthen or asp, Ps 58:4 91:13. Tsîph῾ont
(basilisk), Pr 23:32. Shĕphîphon, the horned snake, Gen 49:17.
Asp. See foregoing, Dt 32:33 Job 20:14.16 Is 11:8.
Chameleon. Koach, Lev 1130 (R. V. 'land-crocodile'); a large kind of
lizard. See Mole.
Cockatrice. Heb. Tsepha᾽, Tsiphŏnî, basilisk, Is 11:8 14:29 59:5 Jer 8:17.
See R. V. marg. Adder.
Dragon. Heb. Tannin, any sea-monster or large land reptile,
Ps 74:13 148:7 Is 27:1 Ez 29:3. In Ex 7:9-12 translated 'serpent.' So
Ps 91:13 in R. V., and plur. jackal in Job 30:29 Ps 44:19, with other
passages describing desolation. In New Testament (Apoc.) δράκων,
symbolical of the forces of evil.
Ferret. Heb. ᾽Anaqah, a kind of lizard; perhaps the gecko, Lev 11:30.
The name signifies 'moaning,' 'crying,' as Ps 12:5 102:20 Mal 2:13.
Frog. Heb. Tsĕphardēa῾, Gk. βάτραχος, Ex 8:2-13 Rev 16:13.
Leviathan. A Hebrew word untranslated. Job 41 the crocodile, Ps
104:26 a sea-monster; Is 27:1 symbol of Babylonian power, comp.
Ps 74:14. In Job 3:8 for 'their mourning,' read 'leviathan,' refer-
ring probably to some form of incantation (R. V.).
Lizard. Heb. Lĕta᾽ah, Lev 11:30, precise species unknown.
Serpent. Heb. Nachash, Gr. ὄρις, Gen 3 Jn 3:14, &c. The generic
term.
Serpent (Fiery). Heb. Saraph (the same word as seraph, 'burning
one'), with or without Nachash, Num 21:6.8 Dt 8:15. In Is 14:29 30:6
called also a flying serpent, from its habit of darting from tree to
tree.
Snail. Heb. Chomet, Lev 11:30, rather sand-lizard, as R. V. Shabhlûl,
Ps 58:8.
Tortoise. Heb. Tsabh (slow-mover), classed with lizards, Lev 11:29,
otherwise unknown.
Viper. Heb. ᾽Eph῾eh, any poisonous serpent, Job 20:16 Is 30:6 59:5, Gr.
ἔχιδνα, lit. Ac 28:3; fig. Mt 3:7 12:34 23:33.
4. INSECTS (Invertebrata generally).
Ant. Heb. Nĕmalah, Pr 6:6 30:25.
Bee. Heb. Dĕbhorah, Dt 1:44 Judg 14:8 Ps 118:12 Is 7:18.
Beetle. Heb. Chargōl (leaper), Lev 11:22. Perhaps some species of
locust.
Caterpillar. See Locust.
Flea. Heb. Pa῾rosh, 1 Sa 24:14 26:20

NATURAL HISTORY
Fly. Heb. Zĕbhûbh (whence Baal-zebub, 'lord of the fly'), Ecel 10:1
Is 7. ῾Arobh, Ex 8:21.29 Ps 78:45 105:31.
Gnat. Gr. κώνωψ, Mt 23:24, in the proverbial expression 'to strain
out the gnat and swallow the camel.' See R. V.
Hornet. Heb. Tsir῾ah, Ex 23:28 Dt 7:20 Jos 24:12.
Horseleech. Heb. ῾Alûqah, Pr. 30:15 (or 'vampire,' R. V. marg.).
Lice. Heb. Kinnîm, Ex 8:16-18 Ps 105:31 (or 'sand-flies,' R. V.).
Locust. The number of words for this destroyer of vegetation and
crops is very expressive. Four occur in Joel 1:4: Heb. Gazam,
'palmer-worm,' also Am 4:9; ᾽Arbeh (prolific), also Ex 10:4-19, &c.,
'locust'; Yeleq, canker-worm,' also Ps 105:34; Chasil (browser),
'caterpillar,' also Ps 78:46. Other words are Chāgābh (hopper),
Num 13:33 2 Ch 7:13; Gēbh or Gôbh (cutter), Is 33:4 Am 7:1; Tsĕlātsal
(chirper), Dt 28:42. This last word is also used for cymbals.
Moth. Heb. ῾Ash, Job 4:19 Ps 39:11 Is 51:8. New Testament Gr. σής,
Mt 6:19.20 Lu 12:33.
Palmer-worm. See Locust.
Scorpion. Heb. ῾Agrabh, Gr. σκορπίος, Dt 8:15 Lu 11:12 Rev 9:3.5 (used for
a stinging scourge, 1 Ki 12:11).
Spider. Heb. ῾Akkabhish, Job 8:14 Is 59:5. Sĕmāmith, Pr 30:28, is rather
a small kind of lizard. See R. V.
Worm. Heb. Rimmah, Ex 16:24 Job 24:20, Tôla, Dt 28:89 Ps 22:6 Is 66:24,
Sās, Is 51:8. See Moth. Zochēl (crawling things), Mic 7:17, Gr.
σκώληξ, Mk 9:48 (from Is loc. cit.).

II. Plants of Scripture
TREES AND FLOWERS.
Almond is the name of two trees mentioned in Scripture; the one,
Lûz, translated 'hazel' (A. V.) Gen 30:37, is the wild almond, and
the other, Shaqed, the cultivated almond, Num 17:8 Gen 43:11, from
its early blossoms, a symbol of any sudden interposition, Jer 1:11,
and, from their whiteness, of old age, Eccl 12:5.
Almug, or Algum (Heb.). Sandal-wood best answers the description
in 1 Ki 10:11.12. The latter name, 2 Ch 2:8 and 9:10.11, is probably an
error of transcribers.
Aloes, properly lign-aloes, Num 24:8; to be distinguished from the
common flowering aloe. The wood is highly odoriferous: see
Ps 45:8 Pr 7:17 Ct 4:14 Jn 19:40. Heb. ᾽Ahalim; Gr. ἀλόη.
Anise, or dill, occurs only in Mt 23:23 (ἄνηθον). It is an herb of small
value. Its seeds are aromatic and carminative, yielding a vola-
tile oil.
Apple. Often thought to be the quince, which is in the East more
highly scented, and much sweeter than in Europe; or it may be
the apricot, as Dr. Tristram thinks: Pr 25:11 Joel 1:12 Ct 2:3.5 7:8.
Heb. Tappûach.
Ash, Is 44:14 (A. V.), should properly be fir-tree, as R. V. Heb. ᾽Oren.
Balm. Gen 37:25 Jer 8:22, &c., a medicinal gum, a production of Gilead,
probably the opobalsamum. Heb. Tsŏrî.

II. PLANTS OF SCRIPTURE
Barley. Ex 9:31, &c., the well-known grain. Heb. Sĕ῾orah (the hairy
plant).
Bay-tree only in Ps 37:35; the Laurus nobilis, an evergreen with an
agreeable spicy odour. But R. V. has a tree in its native soil,'
Heb. Ezrach.
Bean. 2 Sa 17:28 Eze 4:9. Heb. Bôl.
Box-tree, the same as that of Europe, though in the East it grows wild
and large, Is 41:19 60:13. Specially adapted to mountainous districts,
and a calcareous limestone soil, like Lebanon. Heb. Tĕashshûr.
Briers. The thorny plants of Palestine are very numerous, and
Rabbinical writers say that as many as twenty-two words are
used in Scripture to express this species. The particular plants
indicated by these words are generally not known, but they are
nearly all thorny and useless.
Brier, Barqanim, Judg 8:7.16, some thorny, prickly plant, but some-
times rendered 'threshing instrument,' as Rosenm. Chedēq,
Pr 15:19 Mic 7:4, 'a brier,' a species of nightshade, Solanum spino-
sum (Royle, Tristram). Sirpad, Is 55:13. Sillon, Ez 28:24. Shamir
(often). Sarabhim, Ez 2:6 (the last form not identified)
Bramble, Judg 9:14.15, &c. Heb. ᾽Atād, by some supposed to be the
'thorn' with which Christ was crowned (Spina Christi), properly
thorn, which see. Also Choach, thorn or thistle, which see.
Bush (Heb. Sĕneh), Ex 3:2 Dt 33:16. The Greek word βάτος means
bramble and the Rubus sanctus is common in Palestine.
Nettle, Pr 24:31 Job 30:7 Zep 2:9. Charûl Royle thinks wild mustard.
It is destructive to other vegetation; common to the East; in
English, charlock. The nettle is probably the plant mentioned
in Is 34:18 Ho 9:6 Pr 24:31 (Qimmosh), where it is so translated.
Thistles, Gen 3:18, τριβολος in LXX and New Testament, Mt 7:16 Heb 6:8 ;
a common prickly plant, spreading over the ground. Heb.
Dardar.
Thorns, a general name. Heb. Atad, Ps 58:9, also bramble; see above
Choach, also thistle, Job 41:2 Pr 26:9 Is 34:13, and once in pl. hooks or
chains, 2 Ch 33:11 (R. V.), Chedeq, also brier; na῾atzûtz, a thorn
hedge, Is 55:13 Mesûbhah Mic 7:4. Sir, Eccl 7:6. Tsen, Job 5:5.
Qôts (collective, often). Qimmashōn, Pr 24:31. Shayith, Is 5:6, &c.
ἄκανθα generally in the LXX; also in Mt 7:16 137:22 27:29 Jn 19:2.5.
The number and variety of these words illustrate the abundance of
plants of this class in Palestine. The common bramble and the
holy bramble (Rubus sanctus) abound and thistles cover large
tracts of ground, and grow to a prodigious size; among others,
travellers mention the white Syrian thistle, with the Egyptian
or purple variety, and the musk-scented thistle (Carduus mollis).
Calamus or sweet cane, Ex 30:23 Ct 4:14 Eze 27:19 Is 43:24 Jer 6:20. This
plant is found in Asia and Egypt, though the most fragrant are
said in Jer to come from a far country. It was one of the ingre-
dients of the anointing oil of the Sanctuary. Heb. Qaneh.
Camphire (different from camphor), probably the henna (Gr. κύπρος)
of the East: a fragrant shrub, with flowers like those of the lilac.
The leaves form a powder used for dyeing the nails and eyebrows,
Ct 1:14 4:13. Heb. Kopher.
Caper-berry (Eccl 12:5 R. V.), a shrub growing on walls and rocks.

NATURAL HISTORY
The flower-buds, preserved in vinegar, are a stimulating condi-
ment. Heb. ᾽Abhiyonah.
Carob-tree, a leguminous shrub found in the countries bordering the
Mediterranean, yielding large pods with sweetish seeds, palatable
and useful as food for cattle and swine: the 'husks of Lu 15:16
(Gr, κεράτια).
Cassia, Ex 30:24 Eze 27:19; an inferior kind of cinnamon. The bark
yields an essential oil, less aromatic than cinnamon, but in larger
quantities, and of a more pungent taste. Heb. Qiddah, Qĕtsî῾oth.
Cedar, the name generally of coniferous trees, especially of the noblest
of the tribe, the cedar of Lebanon. The cedar of the Pentateuch
(Lev 14:4.6) was probably a juniper, which tree is common in the
desert of Sinai. Heb. Erez,
Chestnut-tree, Gen 30:37 Eze 31:8, probably the plane, Platanus orientalis,
one of the most magnificent of trees. Those of Assyria were
especially fine, see Eze 31. Heb. ῾Armôn.
Cinnamon, Ex 30:23 Pr 7:17 Ct 4:14 Rev 18:13, the bark of the Laurus kinna-
momum. The plant is found in India and China; but the best
kind is from Malabar and Ceylon. Heb. Qinnamôn.
Cockle, Job 31:40 (R. V. 'noisome weeds'), perhaps the darnel or 'tares'
of the parable, Mt 13:30. The plural is translated 'wild grapes,'
Is 5:2. The fruit is narcotic and poisonous. Heb. Ba᾽shah.
Coriander, an umbelliferous plant, yielding a fruit (called seed), the
size of a pepper-corn, globular, greyish, and aromatic. It is
common in the south of Europe, and is cultivated in Essex, Ex 16:31
Num 11:7. Heb. Gad.
Cucumber, Num 11:5 Is 1:8; rightly translated. Extensively cultivated
in the East. Heb. Qishshuim.
Dove's-dung, 2 Ki 6:25, perhaps the chick-pea, a vetch common in the
East. The same name is still applied in Arabic to the dung of
pigeons, and to these peas (Bochart, Taylor). Some suppose that
the root of a wild-flower, the star of Bethlehem, is the article here
mentioned. Heb. Dibhyonim (Qĕrî).
Ebony, Eze 27:15, wood greatly prized for its colour and hardness. It
is the heart-wood of a date-tree, which grows in great abundance
in the East, and especially in Ceylon. Heb. Hobhnim.
Fig-tree, properly translated: a native of the East; with broad shady
leaves (1 Ki 4:25). The fig sprouts at the vernal equinox, and
yields three crops of fruit, the first ripening about the end of June,
having a fine flavour, and generally eaten green (Jer 24:2). The
others are often preserved in masses or cakes, I Sa 25:18, &c. Heb.
Tĕ᾽ēnah. Pag, green-fig, cf. 2:13; Gr. συ̑κον, συκη̑, freq. in N.T.
Fir-tree is frequently mentioned in Scripture, 2 Sa 6:5 Ct 1:17, &c., and
probably includes various coniferous trees. Some regard the
cypress and juniper as the true representatives of berosh; others
the cedar, and others the common pine. All are found in
Palestine; and as cedar and fir constantly occur together in Scrip-
ture, they probably include the whole genus. Heb. Bĕrosh.
Fitches, i, e. vetches, occurs only in Is 28:25.27, and is probably a species
of Nigella (black cummin, R. V. marg.). The seeds are black, and
are used in the East, like carraway seeds, for the purpose of
imparting to food an aromatic, acrid taste. Heb. Qetzach.

II. PLANTS OF SCRIPTURE
Flag (translated meadow, in Gen 41:2.18) Job 8:11, probably any green
herbaceous plants of luxuriant growth. Heb. Achû.
Flax (Pishtah, once translated 'tow,' Is 43:17, more properly 'a wick'); the
common plant so called, used to make linen, cord, and torches ;
extensively cultivated in Egypt and Syria. Gr. λίνον, Mt 12:20.
Shēsh, translated fine linen and silk, was probably the hemp plant,
in Arabic hasheesh, yielding an intoxicating drink (whence
assassin), now known as the bang of the East. The plant is
cultivated in Persia, Europe, and India.
Three other words are translated linen in the English version, Badh,
Bûts, and Sadin, the first in the Pentateuch, &c., and is probably
the linen made from flax; the second only in Chronicles and the
Prophets, and is probably cotton cloth, a product not mentioned
till after the Captivity: it is generally translated 'fine linen';
the third only in Pr 31:24 Is 3:23 'linen raiment.' The βύσσος of
the New Testament was probably linen. In the LXX, βύσσος
represents both words, Badh and Bûts; for Sadin, σινδών is used
(see Mt 27:50 and parallels). The word cotton does not occur in
Scripture, but the Hebrew Karpas, in Est 1:6, is translated green
(A. V.) and cotton (R. V.). The cotton plant seems not to have
been known in Palestine before the Captivity.
Galbanum, Ex 30:34 only, a very powerful and not very fragrant gum,
exuded by a shrub belonging to the family of Umbelliferæ. It
was used in preparing incense. Heb. Chelbĕnah.
Garlick, Num 11:5 only. This plant is now known by the name of
eschalot, or shalot, and is common in Europe (Allium Escalonium,
i. e. of Ascalon). Herodotus states that it was supplied in large
quantities to the labourers engaged in the erection of the Pyramids.
Heb. Shûm.
Gopher is mentioned only in Gen 6:14. Probably a tree of the pine
tribe, perhaps cypress, which is very abundant in Assyria. Heb.
Gopher.
Gourd, Jon 4:6-10, Heb. Qiqayôn, is now generally admitted to be the
Palma Christi, or castor-oil plant. It is of very rapid growth,
with broad palmate leaves, and giving, especially when young, an
ample shade. The oil is obtained from the seeds of the tree.
Gourd, wild, 2 Ki 4:39. Heb. pl. Paqqu῾oth. The wild cucumber, whose
leaves are like those of the vine, but of a poisonous quality and
bitter taste.
Hemlock, Ho 10:4. Heb. Rōsh. Translated ' gall' in Dt 29:18 Ps 69:21
Lam 3:19, &c. Probably a general name for any bitter herb (Heb.
La῾anah, Am 6:12 (R. V.) 'wormwood').
Hyssop, Ex 12:22 Jn 19:29, &c., either marjoram, a small shrub, its leaves
covered with soft woolly down, adapted to retain fluid; or the
thorny caper, which grows wild in Syria, and is possessed of
detergent properties. Heb. ᾽Ezôbh, Gr. ὕσσωπος.
Juniper, 1 Ki 19:4.5 Ps 120:4; probably the Spanish broom. The wood
of this tree burns with a remarkably light flame, giving out great
heat: hence 'coals of juniper' in Ps 120 (and R. V. marg. Job 30:4,
'to warm them'). Heb. Rothem.
Leeks, Num 11:5. The word so translated is rendered 'grass,' I Ki 18:5;
'herb,' Job 8:12; and 'hay,' Pr 27:25. It properly means anything

NATURAL HISTORY
green. But it is translated 'leeks' in these passages by most of
the versions; and the plant has been known (and indeed wor-
shipped) in Egypt from very early times. Heb. Chatsir.
Lentiles, a kind of pulse, from a small annual, and used for making
soups and pottage. It is of the colour of chocolate (reddish-
brown), and is compared by Pliny to the colour of the reddish
sand around the pyramids. Wilkinson (Ancient Egypt) has given
a picture of lentile-pottage making, taken from an ancient slab.
Gen 25:34 2 Sa 17:28. Heb. ᾽Adashim.
Lily. This word is probably applicable to several plants common in
Palestine. In most passages of Scripture where the word is used,
there is reference to the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile. This
species was enten as food: the roots, stalks, and seeds are all very
grateful, both fresh and dried. Hence the allusion to feeding
among lilies. The 'lily of the valley,' i. e. of the water-courses,
belongs also this species, Ct 2:2.16 4:5, &c. The flower was worn
on festive occasions, and formed one of the ornaments of the
Temple, I Ki 7:19. Heb. Shûshān.
The lily of the New Testament (κρινον) is the scarlet martagon lily
(Lil. chalcedonicum), a stately turban-like flower. It flowers in April
and May, when the Sermon on the Mount was probably delivered,
and is indigenous throughout Galilee. It is called in the New
Testament the 'lily of the field,' Mt 6:28.
Mallows, only in Job 30:4, R. V. 'salt-wort,' Atriplex halimus; is still
used by the poor as a common dish. Heb. Mallûach.
Mandrakes, Gen 30:14.16 Ct 7:13, Atropa mandragora, a plant like lettuce
in size and shape, but of dark green leaves. The fruit is of the
size of a small apple, and ripens in wheat-harvest (May). It is
noted for its exhilarating and genial virtues. Heb. Dudaim.
Melon, Num 11:5. The gourd tribe, to which cucumbers and melons
belong, are great favourites in the East, and abound in Egypt and
India. There are different kinds-the Egyptian (Cucumis chate),
the common water-melon, &c., all of which are probably included
in the Scripture name. Heb. ᾽Abhattichim.
Millet, Eze 4:9, the Panicum miliaceum of botanists, a small grain some-
times cultivated in England for feeding poultry, and grown
throughout the East. It is used for food in Persia and in India.
Heb. Dochan.
Mulberry, in the New Testament, sycamine-tree, Lu 17:6 (very different
from the sycomore, which is a kind of fig), is the mulberry of
Europe, very common in Palestine. The word translated 'mul-
berry' in a Sa 5:23.24 1 Ch 14:14.15 probably means balsam-tree. The
rustling of its leaves answers the description given in these
passages. The same word occurs in Ps 84:6, and is there regarded
(A. V.) as a proper name (Baca), but most of the versions (as R. V.)
translate it weeping.' Valley of Baca = 'vale of tears.'
Mustard (σίνσπι), is either a species of the plant known in England
under this name, which has one of the smallest seeds, and is itself
among the tallest of herbaceous plants, or the Salvadora Persica,
a shrub or tree, whose seeds are used for the same purpose as
mustard (Royle, Irby).
Myrrh is the representative of two words in Hebrew, of which the

II. PLANTS OF SCRIPTURE
first (Môr, ouúpra) is properly translated, Ex 30:23 Ps 45:8 &c. Jn
19:39. It is a gum exuded by the Balsamodendron myrrha, and
other plants. It is highly aromatic and medicinal, and moderately
stimulating. The Greeks used it to drug their wine. The shrub
is found in Arabia and Africa.
Bĕdolach, Gen 2:12 Num 11:7, is probably a gum, still known as bdellium.
The gum exudes from more than one tree, and is found in both
India and Africa.
Lôt is properly labdanum. It is a gum exuded by the cistus, and is
now used chiefly in fumigation, Gen 37:5 43:11. Other similar
gums mentioned in Scripture are-
Balm (Tsŏri), Gen 37:25 Jer 8:22. It is probably the balm or balsam of
Gilead (the Hebrew of which word, however, Bésem, is generally
translated spice, or sweet odours). This tree is common in Arabia
and Africa. The gum is obtained in small quantities, and is
highly aromatic and medicinal.
Frankincense (Lĕbhonah), is a gum taken from a species of storax, and
is highly fragrant. It was employed chiefly for fumigation, and
was largely used in the service of the Temple. It was regarded
as an emblem of prayer, Lev 2:1 Ps 145:1.2 Rev 8:3.4.
Spicery (Nĕkh᾽oth), Gen 37:25 43:11, is a kind of gum, perhaps taken from
the tragacanth tree.
Stacte (Nātāph), occurs only in Ex 30:34, and is another gum, not now
certainly known. Celsius thinks it an inferior kind of myrrh.
Myrtle grows wild in Palestine, and reaches the height of twenty feet.
Its leaves are dark and glossy, and its white flowers highly aro-
matic. Its branches were used at the Feast of Tabernacles, Ne 8:15
Is 41:17-19. Heb. Hădhas.
Nard, Mk 14:3. Heb. Nērd, Gk. νάρδος, translated spikenard, the Indian
plant Nardostachys jatamansi, yielding a delicious and costly per-
fume. The root and the leaves that grow out of it have the
appearance of spikes, hence the name (stachys spike). Ct 1:12 4:13.14
Mk 14:3 Jn 12:3.
Nut is the translation of two Hebrew words: Botnim, Gen 43:11, pistachio-
nuts, well known in Syria and India, but not in Egypt, and
᾽Eghoz, the walnut-tree, Ct 6:11, which is called in Pers. and Arab.
'gouz.'
Oak, Gen 35:8 Is 2:13 6:13 44:14 Eze 27:6 Ho 4:13 Am 2:9 Zec 11:2. In other
passages where the word 'oak' is found, the word ought to be
terebinth, or turpentine-tree (see teil). The oak is not common in
Palestine, nor is the English oak (Quercus robur) found there. Oaks
of Bashan are still of large size; but they are chiefly either the
evergreen oak (Q. ilex), the prickly-cupped oak (Q. valonia), or the
Kermes oak. Heb. ᾽Allon.
Olive, an evergreen, common from Italy to Cabul. The unripe fruit
is preserved in a solution of salt, and is used for dessert; when
ripe, it is bruised in mills, and yields an oil of peculiar purity and
value. Both the oil and the tree were used in the Feast of
Tabernacles. In Judæa it was a symbol of prosperity, Ps 52:8,
and in all ages it has been an emblem of peace.
The wild olive (Ro 11:17.24) was probably a wild species of the Olea
Europœa. It was a common mode of grafting in Italy, to insert

NATURAL HISTORY
a branch of the wild olive on the stock of the cultivated plant
(Columella). Heb. Zayith, Gr. ἐλαία.
Onion, a plant well known in this country and in the East. In hot
climates it loses its acrid taste, and is highly agreeable and
nutritious, Num 11:5. Heb. Bétzel.
Palm, or date-tree, is one of the most valuable eastern trees, Ex 15:27.
It flourished especially in the valley of Jordan (hence Jericho, the
City of Palm-trees) and in the deserts of Syria (Tamar = Palmyra).
It was considered characteristic of Judæa, being first met with
there by nations travelling southward from Europe. Heb. Tamar,
Gr. φοίνιξ, whence Phoenicia.
Pomegranate ('grained-apple'), a tree of great value in hot climates.
Its fruit is globular, and as large as a good-sized apple. The
interior contains a quantity of purple or rosy seeds, with a sweet
juice, of a slightly acid taste, 1 Sa 14:2. The tree is not unlike the
common hawthorn, but larger. It is cultivated in North Africa
and throughout Asia. Hag 2:19 Dt 8:8 Ct 8:2 Joel 1:12. Heb. Rimmon.
Carved pomegranates were placed on the capitals of the columns of
the Temple, Ex 28:33.34,
Poplar, Ho 4:13, is either the white poplar or the storax-tree, Gen 30:37,
LXX, and R. V. marg. The latter yields the fragrant resin of
frankincense. Either tree answers the description given in
Genesis and Hosea. Heb. Lîbhneh.
Reed, a tall, grassy plant, consisting of a long, hollow-jointed stem,
with sharp-cutting leaves. The plant grows on the banks of rivers
and in moist places, 1 Ki 14:15 Job 40L21 Is 19:6.7 36:6 Ez 40:5 Mt 11:7,
and was used for measuring, fishing, walking, &c.
A small kind was used for writing, 3 Jn 13. This reed is very
abundant in the marshes between the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Heb. Qaneh, Gk. κάλαμος.
Rose, Ct 2:1 Is 35:1. Though the rose was known in Syria, the dog-
rose being common on the mountains, and the damask rose taking
its name from Damascus, it is not mentioned in Scripture; the
word so translated being (as its name implies) a bulbous-rooted
plant. It is probably the sweet narcissus, abundant in the plain
of Sharon, in fact the characteristic wild flower of the district.
Heb. Chăvatzéleth.
Rue, only in Lu 11:42, is the common garden-plant so called. Its leaves
emit a strong and bitter odour, and were formerly used medicinally.
Gr. πήγανον,
Rush, Ex 2:3 Is 9:14 19:15, translated also 'hook,' Job 41:2 ('rope of rushes,'
R. V. marg.), and 'bulrush,' Is 58:5 (A. V.), the Egyptian papyrus,
Is 18:2 (R. V.), which belongs to the tribe, not of rushes, but of
sedges. It grows eight or ten feet high. The stem is triangular,
and without leaves, but is adorned with a large, flocculent, bushy
top. The plant was used for making boats, sails, mats, and ropes;
the stem itself yielding the celebrated paper of Egypt. The plant
is found in all parts of the Nile, near Babylon, and in India.
Heb. Gomē, Agmôn.
Sifron, Ct 4:14. The stigmas and style of the yellow crocus formed
this fragrant perfume, which was used to flavour both meat and
wine, and as a powerful stimulative medicine. It is very common

II. PLANTS OF SCRIPTURE
throughout Asia, and derives its English name from the Arabic
'zafran.' Heb. Karkōm.
Shittah-tree, the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, Ex 25:5, &c. The stem is
straight and thorny, the bark is a greyish-black, the wood very
light and durable, and therefore well adapted for a movable
structure like the Tabernacle. All this species bear flowers, and
are remarkable for their fragrance and beauty. Heb. plur. Shittîm.
Sycomore, I Ki 10:27 Ps 78:47, &c., erroneously translated by the LXX
σνκάμινος (see Mulberry). In its leaves it resembles the mulberry,
but is really a fig-tree, bearing a coarse, inferior fruit (Ficus
sycomorus). It is lofty and shady (Lu 19:4), with wood of no great
value (1 Ki 10:27 2 Ch 1:15). The mummy-cases of Egypt were
generally made of it. Heb. Shiqmah. This tree must be distin-
guished from the English sycamore, which is a kind of maple.
Tares (ζιζάνια), Mt 13:25, the Lolium temulentum, a kind of darnel, or
grass, resembling wheat until the seeds appear. It impoverishes
the soil, and bears a seed of deleterious properties.
Teil-tree, Is 6:13, an old English name for the lime-tree,' which is not
found in Palestine. The R. V. rightly has 'terebinth' in the
above passage. So has R. V. for A. V.' elm'in Ho 4:13, and for 'oak'
in Gen 35:4 marg. and in other passages. See Oak. It is also
known as the turpentine-tree, from the fragrant substance exud-
ing from its bark. Heb. Elah.
Thyine-wood, Rev 18:12, was in great demand among the Romans, who
called it thya, or citron-wood. It grows only in the neighbour-
hood of Mount Atlas, in Africa, and yields the 'sandarach' rosin
of commerce. It is highly balsamic and odoriferous. Gr. θύινον.
Vine, Gen 9L20, &c., a well-known tree, and highly esteemed through-
out the East. The vine of Eshcol was especially celebrated,
Num 13:23.24. The vine was grown on terraces on the hills of
Palestine, Is 5:1 Mic 1:6, or elsewhere on the ground, Eze 17:6.7.
Sometimes it formed an arbour, 1 Ki 4:25 Ho 2:12, propped up and
trained. Often metaphorically used, as in Jn 15. A noble vine
= men of generous disposition, Jer 2:21. A strange, or wild vine
= men ignoble and degenerate, Dt 32:32, &c. Heb. Géphen (also
Soreq, yielding rich red or purple grapes, Is 5:2 Jer 2:4 Gen 49:11,
also denoting the valley that produced them, Judg 1:4), Gr.
ἄμπελος.
Willow, Ps 137:2 Is 44:4, was well known in Judæa, and one species, the
weeping willow, is the Salix Babylonica. Heb. ῾Erebh. Tsaphtsāphah,
Ez 17:5, is probably the Egyptian willow (Salix Ægyptiaca).
Wormwood, 'root of bitterness,' Dt 29:17 Rev 8:10.11, an emblem of
trouble. There are various species of this tribe (Artemisia), of
which the English plant (A. absinthium) is a specimen. Several
kinds are found in Judæa, all exceedingly bitter. The wormwood
of commerce consists of the tops of the plants, flowers, and young
seeds intermixed. Heb. La῾ănah, Gr. ἀψίνθιον.

NATURAL HISTORY
III. Minerals of Scripture
1. EARTHS AND OTHER MINERAL SUBSTANCES.
Bitumen, or asphalt, translated slime, is an earth-resin, abounding in
the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. It was used
as cement, Gen 11:3, as it still is in some parts of the East. Pliny
states that the Egyptians used it for making the papyrus boats of
the Nile water-tight (see Ex 2:£). Heb. Chemar, Gr. ἄσφpαλτος.
Brimstone, or sulphur, a mineral found in a natural state; also
obtained by art from pyrites and various rock formations. It is
found in Palestino in both states, Gen 19:24.25 Ps 11:6 Eze 38:22 Is 30:33
34:9 Rev 14:10. Heb. Gophrith, Gr. θει̑ον.
Clay, an unctuous earth, used in making earthenware, Is 29:16 45:9
Jer 18:4.6, and, when mixed with sand, for building, Job 4:19. Heb.
Chomer, Tit (mire), Mélet (mortar).
Earth has three representatives in Hebrew: ᾽Erets the earth, habitable
and uninhabited; ᾽Adamah, properly, red earth, cultivable land,
and sometimes the whole earth; ῾Aphar, dry earth, or dust. There
are also words for very fine dust (Dt 28:24 Nah 1:3), and a dust-
particle, or atom (Is 40:15). Clods of earth have three names,
Job 7:5 31:33 Joel 1:17.
Nitre (or carbonate of soda), Néther, a mineral alkali (as Borith, translated
soap, is a vegetable alkali), found in a natural state in Egypt,
Jer 2:22 (R. V. 'lye') and Pr 25:20 only. Vinegar (any acid) makes
it emit a disagreeable odour, and destroys its qualities; hence
the last passage.
Salt abounds in Palestine. The Dead Sea is strongly impregnated
with it. The Salt-valley of a Sa 8:13 1 Ch 18:12 Ps 60, is a large
plain south-west of the Dead Sea. The salt-pits of Zep 2:9 were
probably such as are still dug in the borders of the Dead Sea,
into which the water runs, and where a thick crust of salt is soon
deposited. Often figuratively used, as 'a covenant of salt,' 2 Ch 13:5
Ps 107:34 (because nothing can grow in a soil covered with salt,
Jer 17:6 Judg 9:45) Col 4:6 (apposite, pure discourse) Mt 5:13 Mk 9:50.
Heb. Melach, Gr. ἄλς.
Sand abounds in Palestine, and is often used as a comparison, to
express abundance, extensiveness, weight, &c. Heb. Chōl, Gr.
ἄμμος.
2. STONES AND ROCKS.
Alabaster (from the Arabic, the whitish stone) of the moderns, is
a variety of gypsum: among the ancients, the word was applied
to a kind of onyx, a hard stalagmitic deposit from water impreg-
nated with carbonate of lime, Mt 26:7 Mk 14:3 Lu 7:37, It was much
used for perfumery-boxes (Pliny), as it still is in Egypt. Gr.
ἀλάβαστρον.
Chalk-stone, Is 27:9, lime-stone, the chief material of the hills of
Syria and Palestine. It is hard and whitish; sometimes yellow
or grey. Heb. Gîr.

III. MINERALS OF SCRIPTURE
Crystal, Eze 1:22, literally ice (Heb.), Job 28:17 (Zĕkhûkhîth), a trans-
parent, glass-like stone, of the flint family. Qerach, Gabhîsh, Job 28:18
(R. V.), Gr. κρύσταλλος, Rev 4:6 22:1.
Flint, Dt 8:15 32:13 Ps 114:8 Is 50:7 Job 28:9. The rocks of Sinai, to which
in Dt 8 the word is applied, are granite, porphyry, and green-
stone, and such rocks are no doubt intended. Heb. Challamish,
and in Eze 3:9 tsûr (rock).
Lime, Is 33:12 Am 2:1. Heb. Sid, translated plaster, Dt 27:2.4.
Marble is limestone of a close texture. The name in Hebrew means
'whiteness' (generally applied to linen), 1 Ch 29:2 Est 1:6 Ct 5:15.
Heb. Shēsh.
Rock. High precipitous rocks, fit for refuge, are called Sela᾽, Judg 15:8.11
I Sa 14:4 Ps 18:3, &c. Tsûr is the generic name, also very frequent.
Gr. πέτρα, Mt 7:24.25 Mk 15:46 1 Cor 10:4, &c.
Stone (Heb. ᾽Ebhen), is generic. ('Gravel' is Chātsāts, from a root signi-
fying to break up.') Gr. λίθος, πέτρος Jn 1:42.
3. PRECIOUS STONES.
Agate, a semi-transparent, variegated mineral, crystalline in struc-
ture, so called from the river Achates in Sicily (Pliny), Ex 28:19 39:22.
Heb. Shĕbhû. The word in Is 54:12 Ez 27:16 is Kadkod. A similar
Arabic word means vivid redness, and the stone here meant is
probably the oriental ruby; so R. V.
Amethyst, a kind of blue, transparent quartz, sometimes purple or
greyish. Heb. ᾽Achlamah, from a word signifying dream; Gr.
ἀμvέθυστος, from a word for drunkenness. (The Hebrews supposed
the amethyst to have the power of procuring dreams, the Greeks
of preventing intoxication.) Ex 28:19 39:12.
Beryl. Heb. Tarshish, Gr. βήρυλλος. Tarshish stone, or chrysolith,
properly a gem of yellow gold lustre, sometimes verging to yellow
green, Ex 28:20 39:13 Ct 5:14 Eze 1:16 &c. Rev 21:20. See Onyx.
Carbuncle (Heb. Bareqath or Baréqeth, flashing as lightning); the word
so translated is rather the oriental emerald (σμάραγδος), a beauti-
ful green, of different shades, Ex 28:17 Eze 28:13, so LXX Jos.
In Is 54:12 the literal meaning is 'sparkling stone.' 'Carbuncle'
is derived, etymologically, from carbo, a glowing coal. See
Emerald.
Diamond (1) Heb. Yahălom. A hard gem (literally hammered ').
Possibly the onyx, a kind of chalcedony, of various tints. When
red, called sardonyx (see Sardius); reddish grey, chalcedonyx;
tawny, memphitonyx. The onyx was semi-transparent (like the
human nail, hence its name), and was much used for cameos and
seals, Ex 28:18 Eze 28:13.
(2) Heb. Shamir, Jer 17:1 (also Eze 3:9 Zec 7:12, translated adamant), and
probably means emery, an aluminous mineral, very hard, used for
polishing glass.
The diamond was unknown to the Jews.
Emerald, or rather the carbuncle, under which name several brilliant
red stones were included, especially the ruby, garnet, &c., Ex 28:18
Eze 28:13. Heb. Nophekh.

NATURAL HISTORY
Jasper, an opaque gem, of various tints, green, red, and yellow,
Ex 28:20 Eze 28:13 Rev 4:3 21:11.18.19. Heb. Yāshĕpheh, Gr. ἴαδπις.
Ligure (A. V. Ex 28:9 39:12, a word no longer used), R. V. hyacinth or
jacinth, a transparent gem, orange-yellow-red, found in Ceylon and
India, Rev 21:20 9:17. Heb. Léshem, Gr. ὑάκινθος.
Onyx, probably the beryl or chrysoprase, Gen 2:12 Rev 21:20 (i. e. a leek-
green stone), generally transparent, and of a pale green colour,
Ex 25:7 Eze 28:13. Heb. Shoham.
Sapphire, a transparent gem, generally sky-blue, and very hard;
hence the floor of the throne of God in heaven is compared to it,
Ex 24:10 Eze 1:26 Rev 21:19. Heb. Sappir. The sapphire of the Greeks
(σάπφειρος) was our lapis lazuli; the same colour as the Scripture
sapphire, but much softer.
Sardins (Heb. ᾽Odem, red stone), properly carnelian (à carne), a flesh-
coloured gem, of the chalcedony family. It was found largely at
Sardis, in Lydia, Ex 28:17 Eze 28:13 Rev 4:3 21:20,
Topaz, a yellow gem, with red, grey, or green tinge, found in South
Arabia. Hence the topaz of Cush; an island in the Red Sea being
called Topaz island (Pliny). Job 28:19 Ex 28:17 Eze 28:13 Rev 21:20.
Heb. Pitdah.
The descriptions in Revelation, it will be noticed, are closely con-
nected with those in Exodus and in Ezekiel.
4. METALS.
Amber, Eze 1:4.27 8:2, properly, a metal composed of copper and gold.
Heb. Chashmal. Electron, which is used by the LXX to translate
it, meant also amber. The corresponding Greek word (χαλκολί-
βανον) is found in Rev 1:15, 'burnished brass.'
Antimony, or stibium, does not directly occur in the Bible; but its
use is implied in the words translated paint (viz. the eyes), literally,
with antimony, 2 Ki 9:30 Jer 4:30 Eze 23:40. The verb is kachal, to
colour with al-kohol, a fine black powder made from the metal.
See Is 54:11 (R. V. marg.).
Brass. This compound metal-copper and zinc-was unknown in
Scripture times. Where we read brass, we are generally to under-
stand either copper or a a mixture of copper and tin (nine parts of
the former to one of the latter), i. e. bronze. The word 'brazen'
is used in the same sense. This mixed metal was susceptible of
a high polish, and was used for mirrors, Ex 38:8 Job 37:18 Is 3:2
where looking-glasses is out of place: see R. V. 'Steel' (Jos 20:24
2 Sa 22:35 Ps 18:34 Jer 15:12) should be 'brass,' as R. V., with the
same meaning. Heb. Nĕchosheth, Gr. χαλκός.
Gold (Heb. Sĕgor, Kéthem, what is concealed, treasure; Charûts, what is
lustrous; Pāz, pure gold; and Zāhābh, gold itself, its mineral name),
Gr. χρυσός In job 22:24 'gold' (A.V.) 'treasure' R.V., Bétzer, is
literally ore, something broken off.' The Jews obtained their
gold chiefly from Sheba and Ophir, both in Arabia, 1 Ki 9:28 Ps 45:9.
At present, no gold is found there, but ancient writers affirm that
it was formerly found in considerable quantities. 'Uphaz,' pro-
bably = Ophir, Dn 10:5, and 'Parvaim,' 2 Ch 3:6, may mean
'eastern regions' (Ges.). Beaten, or perhaps alloyed (Ges.) gold
NAMANA
III. MINERALS OF SCRIPTURE
is mentioned, I Ki 10:16.17. Gold and silver were sometimes
purified by fire, Pr 17:3, lead, antimony, salt, tin, and bran being
used in the process. Golden ornaments were early used; and
beaten gold was used for overlaying parts of the Temple structure,
furniture, and decorations. The first mention of gold money is
in David's age, 1 Ch 21:25, weight, not coinage : see § 213.
Iron was largely found in Syria, even in the earliest times, Dt 8:9.
Instruments and tools were made of it, Num 35:16 Dt 27:5. Steel is
called in Jer 15:12 'northern iron.' The tribe celebrated in ancient
times for making it were called Chalybes, and resided near the
Black Sea. Another name for steel (Pĕlādah, from the Arabic) is
translated 'torches,' Nah 2:4, more probably iron scythes. Heb.
Barzel.
Lead is first mentioned Ex 15:10. Before quicksilver was known it
was used to purify silver. Hence several expressions, Jer 6:29
Eze 22:18. Heb. ῾Ophéreth. In Am 7:7 a weight of lead, or plummet,
is mentioned. The word is the Arabic for lead (Heb. ᾽Anakh).
Silver, Heb. Késeph, literally, as in Greek (ἀρλύριον), white metal, is
found native, and combined with sulphur and acids. It often lies
in veins, Job 28:1, and was purified by lead and heat (see Lead).
Lead and silver combined is called silver dross; the separated
silver, purified silver, Ps 12:6. It was brought (among other places)
from Spain, Eze 27:12 Jer 10:9. In very early times we find it in
use, Gen 23:15.16 Many utensils were made of it, Gen 44:2 Ex 12:35
Num 7:13 10:2. The earliest mention of it as money is in Gen 20:16,
weight, not coinage, § 213: see also Gen 23:16 Jer 32:9.
Tin is first mentioned Num 31:22. Later, the Tyrians imported it from
Tarshish, Eze 27:12: a levelling instrument of tin is mentioned,
Zee 4:10. This word is also used for the refuse of lead and silver
(see Lead) in Is 1:25. Heb. Bĕdîl.